Friday, May 22, 2020
Terms of Enrichment How French Has Influenced English
The English language has been shaped by a number of other languages over the centuries, and many English speakers know that Latin and Germanic languages were two of the most important. What many people dont realize is how much the French language has influenced English. History Without going into too much detail, here is a little background about other languages that have also shaped English. The language grew out of the dialects of three German tribes (Angles, Jutes, and Saxons) who settled in Britain around 450 A.D. This group of dialects forms what we refer to as Anglo-Saxon, which gradually developed into Old English. The Germanic base was influenced in varying degrees by Celtic, Latin, and Old Norse. Bill Bryson, a noted American linguist of the English language, calls the Norman conquest of 1066 the final cataclysm [that] awaited the English language. When William the Conqueror became king of England, French took over as the language of the courts, administration, and literatureâ€â€and stayed there for 300 years. Anglo-Norman Some say this eclipse of the English vernacular was probably the most regrettable effect of the conquest. Superseded in official documents and other records by Latin and then increasingly in all areas by Anglo-Norman, written English hardly reappeared until the 13th century, according to britannica.com. English was demoted to humble everyday uses, and it became the language of peasants and the uneducated. These two languages existed side by side in England with no noticeable difficulties. In fact, since English was essentially ignored by grammarians during this time, it evolved independently, becoming a simpler language grammatically. After 80 years or so of coexisting with French, Old English segued into Middle English, which was the vernacular spoken and written in England from about 1100 to about 1500. This is when Early Modern English, the language of Shakespeare, emerged. This evolutionary version of English is nearly identical to the English we know today. Vocabulary During the Norman occupation, about 10,000 French words were incorporated into English, about three-fourths of which are still in use today. This French vocabulary is found in every domain, from government and law to art and literature. About one-third of all English words are derived directly or indirectly from French, and its estimated that English speakers who have never studied French already know 15,000 French words. There are more than 1,700 true cognates, words that are identical in the two languages. Pronunciation English Pronunciation owes a lot to French as well. Whereas Old English had the unvoiced fricative sounds [f], [s], [ÃŽ ¸] (as in thin), and [∠«] (shin), French influence helped to distinguish their voiced counterparts [v], [z], [à °] (the), and [Ê’] (mirage), and also contributed the diphthong [Éâ€y] (boy). Grammar Another rare but interesting remnant of French influence is in the word order of expressions like secretary general and surgeon general, where English has retained the noun adjective word order typical in French, rather than the usual adjective noun sequence used in English. French Words and Expressions in the English Language These are some of the thousands of French words and expressions the English language has adopted. Some of them have been so completely absorbed into English the etymology is not evident. Other words and expressions have retained their written Frenchness, a certain je ne sais quoi that does not extend to pronunciation, which has assumed English inflections. The following is a list of words and expressions of French origin that are commonly used in English. Each term is followed by the literal English translation in quotation marks and an explanation. adieu   until God    Used like farewell: When you dont expect to see the person again until God (meaning when you die and go to Heaven) agent provocateur   provocative agent   A person who attempts to provoke suspected individuals or groups into committing unlawful acts aide-de-camp   camp assistant   A military officer who serves as a personal assistant to a higher-ranking officer aide-mà ©moire   memory aid    1. Position paper   2. Something that acts as an aid to memory, such as crib notes or mnemonic devices à la franà §aise   in the French manner   Describes anything done the French way allà ©e   alley, avenue   A path or walkway lined with trees amour-propre   self love   Self-respect aprà ¨s-ski   after skiing   The French term actually refers to snow boots, but the literal translation of the term is what is meant in English, as in aprà ¨s-ski social events. à propos (de)   on the subject of   In French, à propos must be followed by the preposition de. In English, there are four ways to use apropos (note that in English, weve done away with the accent and the space):  Adjective: appropriate, to the point. Thats true, but its not apropos. Adverb: at an appropriate time, opportunely. Fortunately, he arrived apropos. Adverb/Interjection: by the way, incidentally. Apropos, what happened yesterday? Preposition (may or may not be followed by of): with regard to, speaking of. Apropos our meeting, Ill be late.He told a funny story apropos of the new president. attachà ©Ã‚   attached   A person assigned to a diplomatic post au contraire   on the contrary   Usually used playfully in English. au fait   conversant, informed  Au fait is used in British English to mean familiar or conversant: Shes not really au fait with my ideas, but it has other meanings in French. au naturel   in reality, unseasoned   In this case naturel is a semi-false cognate. In French, au naturel can mean either in reality or the literal meaning of unseasoned (in cooking). In English, we picked up the latter, less common usage and use it figuratively, to mean natural, untouched, pure, real, naked. au pair   at par   A person who works for a family (cleaning and/or teaching the children) in exchange for room and board avoirdupois   goods of weight   Originally spelled averdepois bà ªte noire   black beast   Similar to a pet peeve: something that is particularly distasteful or difficult and to be avoided. billet-doux   sweet note   Love letter blond, blonde   fair-haired   This is the only adjective in English that agrees in gender with the person it modifies: Blond is for a man and blonde for a woman. Note that these can also be nouns. bon mot, bons mots   good word(s)   Clever remark, witticism bon ton   good tone   Sophistication, etiquette, high society bon vivant   good liver   Someone who lives well, who knows how to enjoy life. bon voyage   good trip  In English, it would be, Have a good trip, but Bon voyage is considered more elegant. bric-a-brac   The correct French spelling is bric-à -brac. Note that bric and brac dont actually mean anything in French; they are onomatopoetic. brunette   small, dark-haired female   The French word brun, dark-haired, is what English really means by brunette. The suffix -ette indicates that the subject is small and female. carte blanche   blank card   Free hand, ability to do whatever you want/need cause cà ©là ¨bre   famous cause   A famous, controversial issue, trial, or case cerise   cherry   The French word for the fruit gives us the English word for the color. cest la vie   thats life   Same meaning and usage in both languages chacun à son goà »t   each one to his own taste   This is the slightly twisted English version of the French expression à chacun son goà »t. chaise longue   long chair   In English, this is often mistakenly written as chaise lounge, which actually makes perfect sense. chargà © daffaires   charged with business   A substitute or replacement diplomat cherchez la femme   look for the woman   Same problem as always cheval-de-frise   Frisian horse   Barbed wire, spikes, or broken glass attached to wood or masonry and used to block access cheval glace   horse mirror   A long mirror set into a moveable frame comme il faut   as it must   The proper way, as it should be cordon sanitaire   sanitary line   Quarantine, buffer zone for political or medical reasons. coup de foudre   bolt of lightning   Love at first sight coup de grà ¢ce   mercy blow   Deathblow, final blow, decisive stroke coup de main   stroke of hand   Somehow the English meaning (surprise attack) got completely separated from the French meaning, which is assistance, helping hand. coup de maà ®tre   master stroke   A stroke of genius coup de thà ©Ãƒ ¢tre   stroke of the theater   Sudden, unexpected turn of events in a play coup detat   state blow   Overthrow of the government. Note that the last word is capitalized and accented in French: coup dÉtat. coup dÅ“il   stroke of the eye   A glance cri de cÅ“ur   cry of heart   The correct way to say heartfelt cry in French is cri du cÅ“ur (literally, cry of the heart) crime passionnel   passionate crime   Crime of passion critique   critical, judgment   Critique is an adjective and noun in French, but a noun and verb in English; it refers to a critical review of something or the act of performing such a review. cul-de-sac   bottom (butt) of the bag   Dead-end street debutante   beginner   In French, dà ©butante is the feminine form of dà ©butant, beginner (noun) or beginning (adj). In both languages, it also refers to a young girl making her formal dà ©but into society. Interestingly, this usage is not original in French; it was adopted back from English. dà ©jà vu   already seen   This is a grammatical structure in French, as in Je lai dà ©jà vu Ive already seen it. In English, dà ©jà vu refers to the phenomenon of feeling like youve already seen or done something when youre sure that you havent. demimonde   half world   In French, its hyphenated: demi-monde. In English, there are two meanings:   1. A marginal or disrespectful group   2. Prostitutes and/or kept women de rigueur   of rigueur   Socially or culturally obligatory de trop   of too much   Excessive, superfluous Dieu et mon droit   God and my right   Motto of the British monarch divorcà ©, divorcà ©e   divorced man, divorced woman   In English, the feminine, divorcà ©e, is far more common, and is often written without the accent: divorcee double entendre   double hearing   A word play or pun. For example, youre looking at a field of sheep and you say How are you (ewe)? droit du seigneur   right of the lord of the manor   The feudal lords right to deflower his vassals bride du jour   of the day   Soup du jour is nothing more than an elegant-sounding version of soup of the day. embarras de richesse, richesses   embarrassement of wealth/richness   Such an overwhelming amount of good fortune that its embarrassing or confusing emigrà ©Ã‚   expatriate, migrant   In English, this tends to indicate exile for political reasons en banc   on the bench   Legal term: indicates that the entire membership of a court is in session. en bloc   in a block   In a group, all together encore   again   A simple adverb in French, encore in English refers to an additional performance, usually requested with audience applause. enfant terrible   terrible child   Refers to a troublesome or embarrassing person within a group (of artists, thinkers, and the like). en garde   on guard   Warning that one should be on his/her guard, ready for an attack (originally in fencing). en masse   in mass   In a group, all together en passant   in passing   in passing, by the way; (chess) the capturing of a pawn after a specific move en prise   in grasp   (chess) exposed to capture en rapport   in agreement   agreeable, harmonious en route   on route   On the way en suite   in sequence   Part of a set, together entente cordiale   cordial agreement  Friendly agreements between countries, especially those signed in 1904 between France and the UK entrez vous   come in   English speakers often say this, but its wrong. The correct way to say come in in French is simply entrez. esprit de corps   group spirit   Similar to team spirit or morale esprit descalier   stairway wit   Thinking of an answer or comeback too late fait accompli   done deed  Fait accompli is probably a bit more fatalistic than merely done deed. faux pas   false step, trip   Something that should not be done, a foolish mistake. femme fatale   deadly woman   An alluring, mysterious woman who seduces men into compromising situations fiancà ©, fiancà ©e   engaged person, betrothed   Note that fiancà ©Ã‚ refers to a man and fiancà ©e to a woman. fin de sià ¨cle   end of the century  Refers to the end of the 19th century folie à deux   craziness for two   Mental disorder that occurs simultaneously in two people with a close relationship or association. force majeure   great force   An unexpected or uncontrollable event, like a tornado or war, that prevents a contract from being fulfilled. gamine   playful, little girl   Refers to an impish or playful girl/woman. garà §on   boy   Once upon a time, it was acceptable to call a French waiter garà §on, but those days are long gone. gauche   left, awkward   Tactless, lacking social grace genre   type   Used mostly in art and film. as in, I really like this genre. giclà ©e   squirt, spray   In French, giclà ©e is a general term for a small amount of liquid; in English, it refers to a particular type of inkjet print using a fine spray, and the accent is usually dropped: giclee grand mal   great illness   Severe epilepsy. Also see petit mal haute cuisine   high cuisine   High-class, fancy and expensive cooking or food honi soit qui mal y pense   Shame on anyone who thinks evil of it hors de combat   out of combat   Out of action idà ©e fixe   set idea   Fixation, obsession je ne sais quoi   I dont know what   Used to indicate a certain something, as in I really like Ann. She has a certain je ne sais quoi that I find very appealing. joie de vivre   joy of living   The quality in people who live life to the fullest laissez-faire   let it be   A policy of non-interference. Note the expression in French is laisser-faire. ma foi   my faith   Indeed maà ®tre d, maà ®tre dhà ´tel   master of, master of hotel   The former is more common in English, which is strange since it is incomplete. Literally, it is: The master of will show you to your table. mal de mer   sickness of sea   Seasickness mardi gras   fat Tuesday   Celebration before Lent mà ©nage à trois   household of three   Three people in a relationship together; a threesome mise en abyme   putting into (an) abyss   An image repeated within its own image, as with two facing mirrors. mot juste   right word   Exactly the right word or expression. nà ©e   born   Used in genealogy to refer to a womans maiden name: Anne Miller nà ©e (or nee) Smith. noblesse oblige   obligated nobility   The idea that those who are noble are obliged to act noble. nom de guerre   war name   Pseudonym nom de plume   pen name   This French phrase was coined by English speakers in imitation of nom de guerre. nouveau riche   new rich   Disparaging term for someone who has recently come into money. oh là là    oh dear   Usually misspelled and mispronounced ooh la la in English. oh ma foi   oh my faith   Indeed, certainly, I agree par excellence   by excellence   Quintessential, preeminent, the best of the best pas de deux   step of two   Dance with two people passe-partout   pass everywhere   1. Master key   2. (Art) mat, paper, or tape used to frame a picture petit   small   (law) lesser, minor petit mal   small illness   Relatively mild epilepsy. Also see grand mal petit point   little stitch   Small stitch used in needlepoint. pià ¨ce de rà ©sistance   piece of stamina   In French, this originally referred to the main course, or the test of your stomachs stamina. In both languages, it now refers to an outstanding accomplishment or the final part of something, as a project, a meal, or the like. pied-à -terre   foot on ground   A temporary or secondary place of residence. Plus à §a change   More it changes   The more things change (the more they stay the same) porte cochà ¨re   coach gate   Covered gate through which cars drive and then stop temporarily to allow passengers to enter a building without getting rained upon. potpourri   rotten pot   A scented mixture of dried flowers and spices; a miscellaneous group or collection prix fixe   fixed price   Two or more courses at a set price, with or without options for each course. Though the term is French, in France, a prix fixe menu is simply called le menu. protà ©gà ©Ã‚   protected   Someone whose training is sponsored by an influential person. raison dà ªtre   reason for being   Purpose, justification for existing rendez-vous   go to   In French, this refers to a date or an appointment (literally, it is the verb se rendre [to go] in the imperative); in English we can use it as a noun or a verb (lets rendez-vous at 8 p.m.). repartee   quick, accurate response   The French repartie gives us the English repartee, with the same meaning of a swift, witty, and right on retort. risquà ©Ã‚   risked   Suggestive, overly provocative roche moutonnà ©e   rolled rock   Mound of bedrock smoothed and rounded by erosion. Mouton by itself means sheep. rouge   red   The English refers to a reddish cosmetic or metal/glass-polishing powder and can be a noun or a verb. RSVP   respond please   This abbreviation stands for Rà ©pondez, sil vous plaà ®t, which means that Please RSVP is redundant. sang-froid   cold blood   The ability to maintain ones composure. sans   without   Used mainly in academia, although its also seen in the font style sans serif, which means without decorative flourishes. savoir-faire   knowing how to do   Synonymous with tact or social grace. soi-disant   self saying   What one claims about oneself; so-called, alleged soirà ©e   evening   In English, refers to an elegant party. soupà §on   suspicion   Used figuratively like hint: Theres just a soupà §on of garlic in the soup. souvenir   memory, keepsake   A memento succà ¨s destime   success of estime   Important but unpopular success or achievement succà ¨s fou   crazy success   Wild success tableau vivant   living picture   A scene composed of silent, motionless actors table dhà ´te   host table   1. A table for all guests to sit together   2. A fixed-price meal with multiple courses tà ªte-à -tà ªte   head to head   A private talk or visit with another person touchà ©Ã‚   touched   Originally used in fencing, now equivalent to you got me. tour de force   turn of strength   Something that takes a great deal of strength or skill to accomplish. tout de suite   right away   Due to the silent e in de, this is often misspelled toot sweet in English. vieux jeu   old game   Old-fashioned vis-à -vis (de)   face to face   In English vis-à -vis or vis-a-vis means compared to or in relation with: vis-a-vis this decision means vis-à -vis de cette dà ©cision. Note than in French, it must be followed by the preposition de. Vive la France !   (Long) live France  Essentially the French equivalent of saying God bless America. Voilà !   There it is!  Take care to spell this correctly. It is not voilà ¡ or violà . Voulez-vous coucher avec moi ce soir ?   Do you want to sleep with me tonight?   An unusual phrase in that English speakers use it far more than French speakers. French Words and Phrases Related to the Arts French English (literal) Explanation art dco decorative art Short for art dcoratif. A movement in art of the 1920s and 1930s characterized by bold outlines and geometric and zigzag forms. art nouveau new art A movement in art, characterized by flowers, leaves, and flowing lines. aux trois crayons with three crayons Drawing technique using three colors of chalk. avant-garde before guard Innovative, especially in the arts, in the sense of before everyone else. bas-relief low relief/design Sculpture that is only slightly more prominent than its background. belle poque beautiful era The golden age of art and culture in the early 20th century. chef duvre chief work Masterpiece. cinma vrit cinema truth Unbiased, realistic documentary filmmaking. film noir black movie Black is a literal reference to the stark black-and-white cinematography style, though films noirs tend to be dark figuratively as well. fleur-de-lis, fleur-de-lys flower of lily A type of iris or an emblem in the shape of an iris with three petals. matine morning In English, indicates the days first showing of a movie or play. Can also refer to a midday romp with ones lover. objet dart art object Note that the French word objet does not have a c. It is never object dart. papier mch mashed paper Novel with real people appearing as fictional characters. roman cls novel with keys A long, multivolume novel that presents the history of several generations of a family or community. In both French and English, saga tends to be used more. roman-fleuve novel river A long, multivolume novel that presents the history of several generations of a family or community. In both French and English, saga tends to be used more. trompe lil trick the eye A painting style that uses perspective to trick the eye into thinking it is real. In French, trompe lil can also refer in general to artifice and trickery. French Ballet Terms Used in English French has also given English scores of words in the domain of ballet. The literal meanings of the adopted French words are below. French English barre bar chan chained chass chased dvelopp developed effac shaded pas de deux two step pirouette chained pli bent relev lifted Food and Cooking Terms In addition to the below, French has given us the following food-related terms: blanch (to lighten in color, parboil; from blanchir), sautà ©Ã‚ (fried over high heat), fondue (melted), purà ©e (crushed), flambà ©e (burned). French English (literal) Explanation la carte on the menu French restaurants usually offer a menu with choices for each of the several courses at a fixed price. If you want something else (a side order), you order from the carte. Note that menu is a false cognate in French and English. au gratin with gratings In French, au gratin refers to anything that is grated and put on top of a dish, like breadcrumbs or cheese. In English, au gratin means with cheese. la minute to the minute This term is used in restaurant kitchens for dishes that are cooked to order, rather than made ahead of time. apritif cocktail From Latin, to open. au jus in the juice Served with the meats natural juices. bon apptit good appetite The closest English equivalent is Enjoy your meal. caf au lait coffee with milk Same thing as the Spanish term caf con leche cordon bleu blue ribbon Master chef crme brle burnt cream Baked custard with carmelized crust crme caramel caramel cream Custard lined with caramel like a flan crme de cacao cream of cacao Chocolate-flavored liqueur crme de la crme cream of the cream Synonymous with the English expression cream of the crop - refers to the best of the best. crme de menthe cream of mint Mint-flavored liqueur crme frache fresh cream This is a funny term. Despite its meaning, crme frache is in fact slightly fermented, thickened cream. cuisine kitchen, food style In English, cuisine refers only to a particular type of food/cooking, such as French cuisine, Southern cuisine, etc. demitasse half cup In French, its hyphenated: demi-tasse. Refers to a small cup of espresso or other strong coffee. dgustation tasting The French word simply refers to the act of tasting, while in English degustation is used for a tasting event or party, as in wine or cheese tasting. en brochette on (a) skewer Also known by the Turkish name: shish kebab fleur de sel flower of salt Very fine and expensive salt. foie gras fat liver The liver of a force-fed goose, considered a delicacy. hors duvre outside of work An appetizer. uvre here refers to the main work (course), so hors duvre simply means something besides the main course. nouvelle cuisine new cuisine Cooking style developed in the 1960s and 70s that emphasized lightness and freshness. petit four little oven Small dessert, especially cake. vol-au-vent flight of the wind In both French and English, a vol-au-vent is a very light pastry shell filled with meat or fish with sauce. Fashion and Style French English (literal) Explanation la mode in fashion, style In English, this means with ice cream, an apparent reference to a time when ice cream on pie was the fashionable way to eat it. BCBG good style, good sort Preppy or posh, short for bon chic, bon genre. chic stylish Chic sounds more chic than stylish. crpe de Chine Chinese crepe Type of silk. dcolletage, dcollet low neckline, lowered neckline The first is a noun, the second an adjective, but both refer to low necklines on womens clothing. dmod out of fashion Same meaning in both languages: outmoded, out of fashion. dernier cri last cry The newest fashion or trend. eau de cologne water from Cologne This is often cut down to simply cologne in English. Cologne is the French and English name for the German city Kln. eau de toilette toilet water Toilet here does not refer to a commode. See toilette in this list. Eau de toilette is a very weak perfume. faux false, fake As in faux jewels. haute couture high sewing High-class, fancy and expensive clothing. pass past Old-fashioned, out-of-date, past its prime. peau de soie skin of silk Soft, silky fabric with a dull finish. petite small, short It may sound chic, but petite is simply the feminine French adjective meaning short or small. pince-nez pinch-nose Eyeglasses clipped to the nose prt--porter ready to wear Originally referred to clothing, now sometimes used for food. savoir-vivre to know how to live Living with sophistication and an awareness of good etiquette and style soign taken care of 1. Sophisticated, elegant, fashionable 2. Well-groomed, polished, refined toilette toilet In French, this refers both to the toilet itself and anything related to toiletries; thus the expression to do ones toilette, meaning to brush hair, do makeup, etc. Test your understanding of the above with this quiz. Sources Bryson, Bill. The Mother Tongue: English How It Got That Way. Paperback, Reissue edition, William Morrow Paperbacks, 1990. French is Not a Foreign Language, American Association of Teachers of French. Editors of the American Heritage Dictionaries. The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language, Fifth Edition: Fiftieth Anniversary Printing. Indexed edition, Houghton Mifflin Harcourt, October 16, 2018. French Inside Out: The French Language Past and Present, by Henriette Walter Walter, H. Honni Soit Qui Mal Y Pense. Ldp Litterature, French Edition, Distribooks Inc, May 1, 2003. Katzner, Kenneth. The Languages of the World. Kirk Miller, 3rd Edition, Routledge, May 10, 2002. Bryson, Bill. Made in America: An Informal History of the English Language in the United States. Paperback, Reprint edition, William Morrow Paperbacks, October 23, 2001.
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